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Varieties of Equality The term “equality” is frequently invoked in both public and academic debates, yet its meaning is often left ambiguous. Many proponents of equality appeal to it as an unqualified good, without first clarifying what form or forms of equality are being referenced. To initiate a more careful analysis, let us consider the example of pay disparities—commonly discussed as evidence of systemic inequality. Popular discourse tends to interpret average gaps betwee

1. Introduction The problem of evil has occupied a central place in Western philosophy and theology, persistently challenging the coherence of belief in a good and omnipotent God. From the ancient wisdom literature of the Hebrew Bible through the systematic treatises of Christian thinkers like Augustine, Aquinas, and Leibniz, theodicy has sought to justify God’s ways in a world marked by suffering. For centuries, the dominant approaches in Christian thought linked evil to hum

Introduction  In the aftermath of World War II, philosopher and mathematician Bertrand Russell asserted: “Hitler is an outcome of Rousseau; Roosevelt and Churchill of Locke” 18 . Russell’s diagnosis, shaped by an era of existential threats to democracy, is best interpreted not as a literal genealogy but as a warning about the malleability and often misinterpretation of Enlightenment ideas. This essay argues that while Lockean ideals of liberalism helped shape elements of West